Behaviorism theory

 

Introduction

Behaviorism theory in linguistics focuses on observable behaviors, particularly language use and acquisition. It suggests that language learning is primarily influenced by external stimuli and reinforcement, rather than internal mental processes. This theory emphasizes the role of conditioning and habit formation in language development, highlighting the importance of repetition and reinforcement in acquiring linguistic skills.

Development of Behaviorism

Behaviorism in linguistics emerged in the early 20th century, influenced by the broader behaviorist movement in psychology. The key figures associated with this approach include B.F. Skinner, who developed the theory of operant conditioning, and John B. Watson, who pioneered classical behaviorism. In 1913, Watson published an influential paper titled “Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It,” where he outlined the basic tenets of behaviorism.

Watson’s work laid the foundation for behaviorism by emphasizing the importance of observable behaviors over internal mental processes. He argued that psychology should focus on studying behaviors that could be directly observed and measured, rather than subjective experiences like thoughts and emotions.

Operant Conditioning

B. F. Skinner expanded on Watson’s ideas and introduced the concept of operant conditioning. He proposed that behavior is shaped by its consequences, reinforcements and punishments. Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant Conditioning, but his work was based on Thorndike’s (1898) Law of Effect. According to this principle, behavior that is followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, and behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is less likely to be repeated.

Skinner introduced a new term into the Law of Effect – Reinforcement. Behavior that is reinforced tends to be repeated (i.e., strengthened); behavior that is not reinforced tends to die out or be extinguished (i.e., weakened).

Skinner identified three types of responses, or operant, that can follow behavior.

1. Neutral operants: responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the probability of a behavior being repeated.
2. Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior being repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative.
3. Punishers: Responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Punishment weakens behavior.

Reinforcement

Skinner identified two types of reinforcement:

1. Positive reinforcement
2. Negative  reinforcement

Positive Reinforcement

Positive reinforcement involves presenting a desirable stimulus after a behavior, which increases the likelihood of that behavior occurring again in the future.

Example: If your teacher gives you a chocolate each time you complete your homework (a reward) you will be more likely to repeat this behavior in the future, thus strengthening the behavior of completing your homework.

Negative Reinforcement

Negative reinforcement involves removing an aversive stimulus after a behavior, which also increases the likelihood of that behavior occurring again in the future. Negative reinforcement strengthens behavior because it stops or removes an unpleasant experience.

Example: If you do not complete your homework, you give your teacher an amount in regard of some financial payment. You will complete your homework to avoid paying fine, thus strengthening the behavior of completing your homework.

Punishment

Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement since it is designed to weaken or eliminate a response rather than increase it. It is an aversive event that decreases the behavior that it follows. Punishment can work either by directly applying an unpleasant stimulus or by removing a potentially rewarding stimulus.

Example: Deducting someone’s pocket money to punish undesirable behavior.

There are many problems with using punishment, such as:

• Punished behavior isn’t forgotten; it’s just suppressed – it comes back when punishment stops.
• Punishment can make someone more aggressive.
• It can make you scared.
• Punishment doesn’t really show you what to do; it just tells you what not to do. Reinforcement is better at showing you what to do.

Skinner Box Experiment

B.F. Skinner conducted a famous experiment known as the Skinner Box, which involved using a specially designed apparatus to study operant conditioning in animals, particularly rats.

Skinner showed how positive reinforcement worked by placing a hungry rat in his Skinner box. The box contained a lever on the side, and as the rat moved about the box, it would accidentally knock the lever. Immediately it did so that a food pellet would drop into a container next to the lever. The rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever after being put in the box a few times. The consequence of receiving food, if they pressed the lever, ensured that they would repeat the action again and again.

Skinner showed how negative reinforcement worked by placing a rat in his Skinner box and then subjecting it to an unpleasant electric current which caused it some discomfort. As the rat moved about the box it would accidentally knock the lever. Immediately, it did so the electric current would be switched off. The rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever after a few times of being put in the box. The consequence of escaping the electric current ensured that they would repeat the action again and again.

In fact, Skinner even taught the rats to avoid the electric current by turning on a light just before the electric current came on. The rats soon learned to press the lever when the light came on because they knew that this would stop the electric current from being switched on. Schedules Of Reinforcement Imagine a rat in a “Skinner box.” In operant conditioning, if no food pellet is delivered immediately after the lever is pressed then after several attempts the rat stops pressing the lever (how long would someone continue to go to work if their employer stopped paying them?). The behavior has been extinguished.

Behaviorists discovered that different patterns (or schedules) of reinforcement had different effects on the speed of learning and extinction. Ferster and Skinner (1957) devised different ways of delivering reinforcement and found that this had effects on

1. The Response Rate – The rate at which the rat pressed the lever (i.e., how hard the rat worked).

2. The Extinction Rate – The rate at which lever pressing dies out (i.e., how soon the rat gave up).

Skinner found that the type of reinforcement which produces the slowest rate of extinction (i.e., people will go on repeating the behavior for the longest time without reinforcement) is variable ratio reinforcement. The type of reinforcement which has the quickest rate of extinction is continuous reinforcement.

Continuous Reinforcement

An animal/human is positively reinforced every time a specific behavior occurs, e.g., every time a lever is pressed a pellet is delivered, and then food delivery is shut off.

Response rate is SLOW
Extinction rate is FAST

Variable Ratio Reinforcement

Behavior is reinforced after an unpredictable number of times. For examples gambling or fishing.

Response rate is FAST
Extinction rate is SLOW (very hard to extinguish because of unpredictability)

Example: In a gambling scenario, a person plays a slot machine where they win on average every 10th pull, but they don’t know exactly when the win will occur. The variability in reinforcement (wins) makes the behavior (playing the slot machine) more resistant to extinction. This unpredictability keeps the person engaged and persistently pulling the lever.

Conclusion

In conclusion, behaviorism has profoundly shaped our understanding of learning and behavior, emphasizing the power of environmental influences and reinforcement. By focusing on observable actions and the consequences that follow, behaviorism provides valuable insights into how behaviors are developed, maintained, and modified. While it has faced criticism for neglecting mental processes, its practical applications in education, therapy, and behavior modification have proven immensely valuable.